In some patients, heart disease may be so acute or severe that the patients may not survive the wait for a replacement valve and/or donor heart. Replacement valves and hearts and electronic devices such as ventricular assist devices, defibrillators, and pacemakers that can keep the patient alive until a heart becomes available have been developed. However, currently available devices are not durable and cannot work efficiently. In addition, the fluids and/or cells within such devices are subject to chemical and/or mechanical damage. For example, currently available devices result in mechanical or shear-induced cell lysis, material-dependent thrombogenesis, induction of coagulation, infection and endocarditis and patients must receive daily anticoagulant therapy. Replacement animal hearts and valves are also available. However, patients receiving such replacements must receive daily immunosuppressive therapy.
Accordingly, there is a need in the art for improved pumps and valves that are durable and can mimic the function of the human heart and do not have the side-effects associated with current devices.